# Chi-Square — goodness of fit Test

Pre-Script: This was inspired/triggered by this post.

For a long time, I’ve in the past taken a  “religiously blind”TM stance in the frequentists vs Bayesians automatically. (as evident in this post for example) For the most part it was justified in the sense that I didn’t understand the magic tables and the comparisons and how the conclusions were made. But I was also over-zealous and assumed the Bayesian methods were better by default. After realizing it I wrote a blog post (around the resources I found on the topic). This process convinced me that while the standard objections about frequentist statistical methods being used in blind faith by most scientists, may be true, there’s enough power they provide in many situations where Bayesian method would become computationally unwieldy. i.e: in cases where a sampling theory approach would still allow me to make conclusions with rigourous methods based uncertainty estimates, where Bayesian methods would fail.

So without further ado, here’s a summary of my attempt at understanding the Chi-Square test. Okay, first cut Wikipedia: . Ah.. Ok.. abort mission .. that route’s a no-go.. Clearly the Wikipedia Defn:

A chi-squared test, also referred to as a

${\chi}^2$

test (or chi-square test), is any statistical hypothesis test wherein the sampling distribution of the test statistic is a chi-square distribution when the null hypothesis is true. Chi-squared tests are often constructed from a sum of squared errors, or through the sample variance. Test statistics that follow a chi-squared distribution arise from an assumption of independent normally distributed data, which is valid in many cases due to the central limit theorem. A chi-squared test can be used to attempt rejection of the null hypothesis that the data are independent.

Has too many assumptions. It’s time to go back and read what’s Chi-squared Distribution first, and may be not just Wikipedia, but also that statistics textbook, that I’ve been ignoring for some time now.

Ok the definition of Chi-squared distribution looks straight forward, except for the independent standard normal part. I know what independent means, but have a more vague idea of standard and normal variables More down the rabbit-hole.
Ok that wikipedia link points here. So it basically assumes the k-number of variables are :

• a, Independent of each other,
• b, Are drawn from a population that follows the Standard Normal Distribution.

That sounds fairly rare in practice, but can be created by choosing and combining variables wisely(aka feature engineering in ML jargon). So ok. let’s go beyond that.

The distribution definition is simple. Sum of squares. according to wikipedia, but my text book says, it’s something like ($X - \frac{\mu(X)}{\sigma(X)})^2$ .
Hmm..

The textbook talks about Karl Pearson’s Chi-Square Test so I’ll pick that one to delve deeper.
According to the textbook, Karl Pearson proved* that the Sum of squares of $( \frac{(Observed - Expected)}{Expected})^2$ follows a Chi-Squared Distribution.

The default Null Hypothesis or H0 in a Chi-Square test is that the difference between observed and theoretical/expected(according to your theory) values have no difference.
So clearly that magic comparison values are really just some p-percentage of significance you need on the ideal Chi-square distribution and seeing if your calculated value is less or more.
Conclusion comes from whether calculated value is less .If it’s less it means the Null Hypothesis is true by chance at the given significance level. Or to write it in Bayesian Terms P(Observations | H0) == P(chance/random coincidence)**
If it’s more well here’s what I think it means. $P(Observations | H0) != P(chance |random coincidence)$ and we are p%*** confident about this assertion.

P.S.1: At this point the textbook goes into conditions where a Chi-Squared test is meaningful, I’ll save that for later.
P.S.2: Also that number k is called degrees of freedom, And I really need to figure out what it means in this context. I know what it means in the field of complexity theory and dynamical systems, but in this context I’ll have to look at the proof or atleast math areas the proof draws upon to find out. #TODO for some time. another post.

• — According to the Book the Chi-Squared test does not assume any thing about the distribution of Observed and Expected values and is therefore called non-parametric or distribution-free test. I have a difficult time imagining an approach to a proof that broad, but then I’m not much of a mathematician, for now I’ll take this at face value.

** — I almost put 0.5 here before realizing that’s only to for a coin-toss with a fair coin.

*** — The interpretation what this p-value actually means seems to be thorny issue. So I’ll reserve it for a different post.

# Central Tendency — measures

The 3 common measures of central tendency used in statistics are :

• 1. Mean
• 2. Median
• 3. Mode

There are of course other methods as the Wikipedia page attests. However the inspiration for this post was from yet another J.D.Cook’s blog ..

Note: That all these three and the other measures do obey the basic rules of measure theory.

The point being what you choose to describe your central tendency is key and should be decided based on what you want to do with it. Or more precisely what exactly do you want to optimize your process/setup/workflow for, and based on that you’ll have to choose the right measure. If you read that post above you’ll understand that:

Note: that even within mean there are multiple types of mean. For simplicity I’ll assume mean means arithmetic mean (within the context of this post).

• Mean — Mean is a good choice when you want to minimize the variance(aka, squared distance or second statistical moment about central tendency measure).. That’s to say your optimization function is dominated by a lot of square of distance(from central tendency measure) terms. Think of lowering mean squared error. and how it’s used in straight line fitting
• Median — Median is more useful if your optimization function has distance terms but not squared ones. So this will in effect be the choice when you want to minimize the distance from central tendency.
• Midrange — Midrange is useful when your function looks like max(distance from central measure)..

If most of that sounded too abstract then here’s a practical application I can think of right away to use. Imagine you’re doing performance testing and optimization of a small API you’ve built. Now I don’t want to go into what kind of API/technology behind it or anything. So let’s just assume you want to run it multiple times and calculate a measure of central tendency from it and then try to modify the code’s performance(with profiling + different libraries/data structures whatever….), so what measure of central tendency should you pick?

• Mean — Most Engineers would pick Mean and in a lot of cases it’s enough but think about it. It optimizes for variance of run/execution time. Which is important and useful to optimize in most cases, but in some cases may not be that important.
• Mode — An example is if your system is a small component of say a high-frequency trading platform and the consumer of it has a timeout and fails if it times out.(aka your api is mission-critical, it simply cannot fail). Then you want to make sure even in the lowest case your program completes. If the worst case runtime complexity is what you want to lower then you should pick mode. (Note this is still a trade-off over not lowering the average/mean use-case, just like hard-choice.)
• Median — This is very similar to Mean, except it doesn’t really care about variance. If you’re picking median, then your optimized program is sure to have the best performance in the average run/case/dataset
• Midrange — Well this is an interesting case. Think about it.. even in the previous timeout example i mentioned this could be useful. Here it goes,suppose your api is not mission-critical(i.e: if it fails the overall algorithm will just throw out that data term and progress with other data sources). when you want to maximize the number of times your program finishes within the timeout. i.e: you’re purely measuring the number of times you finish/return a value within the timeout period. You don’t care about the worst-case scenario.

There are other measures, such as:

Additionally, you can take mean of functions(non-negative ones too). See JDCook’s blog again.

# Harmonic Mean

This is a followup post to geometric mean post.

What exactly is Harmonic mean ?
Well to summarize the wikipedia link, it is basically a way to average of rates of a some objects.

Continuing with the Laptop, example , let’s see how to compare the laptops in terms of best bang for the buck.

Once again, we have three attributes and we divide the attribute values by the cost of the laptop. Now this will give us (rather approximately) how much GB/Rupee* we get.

The we apply the formula for harmonic mean.: i.e: 3/(1/x1 + 1/x2 +1/x3).

Just for the fun of argumentation, I threw in a Raspberry Pi 2 + cost of 32 GB SD Card inside.
And Of course** the Raspberry Pi 2 comes out on top on the Harmonic mean(of most bang for the buck) ranking..

Note, how i divided the attributes by cost. In other words, I did that because harmonic mean doesn’t make sense to apply to values that are not rates. (aka, for the engineers, the units have to have a denominator.)

Also note that, the Raspberry Pi 2 is lower in both the arithmetic and geometric means of the attributes(CPU speed, Disk space, RAM), but higher when it comes to value per price. That’s one reason to use harmonic mean of rates (of price/time/) when comparing similar purchases, with multiple attributes/values to evaluate.

Now, so far these are all individual attributes, that don’t talk about or evaluate other factors.

Like for example the apple’s retina display technology. Or for that matter, CPU Cache, or AMD vs Intel processor, Or multithreading support, Or number of cores etc..

All of these could be weighted, if you do know how to weight them. And weighting them right would require some technical knowledge, and reading up reviews of products with those features on anandtech’s reviews/comparison blog posts.

* — If you look closely at the Excel sheet, I’d have multiplied the GHz by 1000, and get KHz to get the numbers in a decent level.

** — Of course, because, it doesn’t come with a monitor, keyboard or mouse. It is simply a PCB chip.

# Geometric Mean

There are more than one type of average(or mean).

UPDATE: In fact there’s a generalized way of finding the mean. It’s called Generalized Mean and all of the below are special cases of that.

The most famous Euclid’s three are :
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Geometric Mean
3. Harmonic Mean

In measure theory terms, there are different ways to measure the central tendency of a distribution and each is used in different situation depending on the demands of context.

Arithmetic Mean is what most of us are taught is schools and most used. i.e: adding up values and dividing by the number of values.

What exactly is geometric mean. and where and why is it useful.

The definition of what it is rather simple.
If you want to find geometric mean of n numbers (positive integers), you multiply them all and take the nth root of the resulting product. Now, why would it be useful, and what’s the point of doing this. The positive integers is not really big difficulty in real life, (as in the worst case we can just shift/translate the origin for the axis with negative numbers)

Ok, Now imagine you have standard graph with the axes having very different limits. i.e: x axis varies from 0-0.5 while y axis varies from 0-100.
Now suppose you want to compare two(or more) objects/distribution both of which have measures along x and y. You can plot points in different colours(for diff objects) on the x and y, and then try to make a decision, based on what you want to pick.

That sounds fine till you think there are very few(say 5-10) different objects to be compared. What if you have say (100 laptops and 10 features) you want to compare them across?.
Ah now we’re in real trouble. How do we know which ones are which among the 100 colours, on top of that you have 5 graphs(for 10 features).

What we need is a way to combine these axes into one axis. Then we can go back to simple bar charts.

Here comes geometric mean to the rescue. If you look at the definition it multiplies the feature values which gives us a area(if 2 features), volume (if 3) or a n-dimensional volume value.
We can’t simply use this because, at the moment this value is biased towards features that have a higher range of values.
i.e: in the previous example y axis which ranged from 0-100 will simply wash out any differences in x.

So we take the (2 or 3 or n)th root of this value. In effect we have found normalized the axis range itself.

Note: the cool part here is we don’t need to know anything about the actual range itself. The nature of the operations on the valiues (i.e: product and nth root) itself ensures the final geometric mean value is equalized.

For an example I’ll pick laptop CPU Speed, Hard disk size, and RAM here’s a link..
If you look at it closely, while in the examples i have picked, while all the three pythagorean means don’t change ordinality/ranking of the laptop being compared, the Arithmetic mean gets dominated/boosted simply by raising Hard Disk space.
On the other hand the geometric mean, doesn’t get raised (as much simply) by raising the attribute with higher values.

It’s not really surprising, since the geometric mean is a exponential function and arithmetic mean is a linear function.

You can ignore the Harmonic mean for now, as it’s not at all clear what’s common among the laptops. I’ll later make another post/update detailing how harmonic mean can be used for this case.

One case where it is used is in finding F-Score for comparing predictive algorithms, statistical tests etc.

UPDATE: Harmonic mean post is here.

UPDATE 2: One way to approach and/or defend against confusopoly is to choose a good measure to normalize against the value of the features.. Say like geometric mean. https://softwaremechanic.wordpress.com/2016/07/18/geometric-mean/ .. However note that it assumes you’ll need to find what are comparable features and how meaningful and inter-changeable they are… That’s not trivial and needs deep domain expertise.